Off the Books: Inside Australia’s hidden system of migrant worker exploitation
Industry-specific data
Use the charts below to explore how migrant worker conditions vary across industries — from demographics and wages through employment structure, working hours, payment practices, and modern slavery indicators. Each chart is interactive: hover or tap segments for full data.
Who works in each industry
A snapshot of the migrant workforce surveyed across major industries — visa type, gender, ABS location, nationality, year of arrival and union membership.
Wages and underpayment
Hourly wages received in lowest paid job and wages received below legal entitlements.
Employment structure & hours
How migrant workers are engaged — ABN, casual or permanent — and the prevalence of night and weekend work.
Payment practices & compliance
Indicators of how — and how transparently — migrant workers are paid: superannuation, cash payment, payslip provision, penalty rates, and unauthorised deductions.
Summary of findings for each industry
Click any industry to view its full data profile: overall underpayment, employment structure, pay practices, and after-hours conditions. Industries are ordered by survey sample size.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
91% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
88% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
40% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
10% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
57% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
57% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
54% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
17% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
5% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
59% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
89% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
91% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
51% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
5% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
37% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
92% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
80% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
24% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
6% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
50% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
97% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
94% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
58% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
8% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
81% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
98% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
97% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
76% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
9% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
43% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
93% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
90% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
59% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
2% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
15% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
88% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
66% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
22% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
5% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
43% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
63% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
56% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
9% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
8% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
31% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
82% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
62% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
23% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
6% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
60% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
71% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
51% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
0% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
4% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
26% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
93% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
72% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
18% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
19% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
74% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
68% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
80% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
8% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
8% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
73% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
73% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
56% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
19% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
11% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
44% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
82% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
97% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
50% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
6% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
84% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
57% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
45% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
19% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
0% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
29% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
94% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
100% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
100% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
29% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
68% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.
of workers were underpaid*
per hour, average underpayment
paid below the National Minimum Wage
Employment structure
Worked on an ABN
80% paid below equiv. casual employee minimum
Casual employee
63% of casual employees underpaid
Permanent employee
33% of permanent employees underpaid
Pay practices
Paid in cash
Not given payslips
27% given a payslip missing hours
Not paid superannuation
After hours and deductions
Worked nights / weekends
86% of those not paid penalty rates
Had wage deductions
ABN workers pegged to the casual employee minimum.